Jean Jacques Rousseau, philosophy, ideas

 Jean Jacques Rousseau

‘Man is born free , but everywhere he is in chains”

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of 

foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair , we had everything before us, we had nothing before us…”

— A Tale of Two Cities — Charles Dickens.

Introduction:

Jean Jacques Rousseau, an architect of a new movement in education, is the product of his time. If we want to know Rousseau completely we must take into consideration the age in which he was born. We must have a clear idea of the then French society and life. Traditionalism was deeply rooted in the soil of France. Economically, France was at the point of bankruptcy. About 90% of the total populations were half-fed and half-clad. Absolutism was the key-note of the time. ‘Divine right’ theory was the dominant political idea. In the field of religion also this absolutism was prominent. Social injustice and inequality held the ground. The bulk of population was devoid of privileges social, economic and political. The whole society was divided into two distinct groups haves and have-not’s. In the field of mental domain we, of course, find a different picture. By this time a movement of illumination had come in France. It was a time of Enlightenment. A new type of formalism known as Rationalism came into being. It was a revolt against blind faith and obedience. It liberated the mind from bondage and gave freedom of thought and action. Rousseau was its greatest exponent. He was the leader of the Naturalistic movement, because of his deep emotionalism and his profound sympathy for the people. He represented the burning spirit of the common people. He was the first great leader in democracy. He was a versatile genius. He passed through the vicissitudes of life. He was not satisfied with the corrupt, vicious and highly artificial society. He was dead against tradition, custom and formalities of the time. He revolted violently against the glaring social inequalities of his age. He denounced the law of reason and preached his faith in nature. He gave stress on the nature of man which has been given by nature. This element of nature has been destroyed by the artificial institutions of the society. He found that man was everywhere in chains. He pleaded for the freedom of man. 

He had deep faith in man. His task was to work out a new ideal in life, to infuse a new spirit into society. Rousseau had no faith in religious orthodoxy. But he had deep faith in a Divine Power. Rousseau held that the civilization of the Enlightenment was a curse.

Life sketch of Jean Jacques Rousseau:

In ‘Confessions’ Rousseau describes his autobiography with complete clarity. He was born in Geneva (1712), which at that time was famous for its intellectual and moral strength, purity of domestic relations, simplicity of social order and freedom in government, in stark contrast to life in Paris where luxury, artificiality and immorality, Where Rousseau later made his residence. Rousseau's place of birth had a profound effect on his thoughts. Rousseau's mother died in his birth pains and this was his first misfortune. Naturally, he turned out to be a sensitive and neurotic child. His training in the early years was one of enjoyment. He had received a few years of formal education. For a long time he led the life of a common vagabond. This life had the quality to strengthen both his love for nature and his knowledge.In 1741 he became a teacher to a provost's sons but could not continue because of his irritable nature. However, this teaching experience gave him a lasting interest in education. His family life was as volatile as his childhood and youth. It was marked by hardship and sometimes inappropriate actions. At the age of 32, he married a servant girl, with whom he had 5 children. However, after attempting several professions such as personal tutor, music teacher, composer, secretary and playwright, he became a successful writer at the age of 38. 

He died in Paris in 1778. Despite many faults and innocent victims of great misfortune, he propounded a principle of education which is now called naturalism.In his life and in his principles, emotions dominate rather than reason; Natural instincts and desires are supreme. From his life experience, he teaches that proper development can take place only by removing all restrictions and allowing natural instincts to the fullest.Social reform presents a purpose of his life. He wanted to revolutionize the social structure of his country. He also wanted to bring revolution in education. He believed that human happiness and welfare are the natural rights of every individual.He supported equality and justice among men. One principle that Rousseau faithfully pursued throughout his life was the democratic principle – his feeling for the common people, his belief in the value of the individual.

His famous and classic treatise on education "Emil" contains the basic ideas of kindergarten, modern primary school work and the whole modern concept of education.

In "Emile" Rousseau gives his ideas of education according to nature. Rousseau in his long story describes the education of youth suitable for his ideal society.In this treatise, “education according to nature” finds its full explanation. His other important 

works on education and other subjects include:

1. M. Project for the Education of de Sainte Marie (1740),

2. Discourses on Science and Art (1750); Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among 

Men (1755); discourse of political economy; The New Heloise; Social Contract; 

Thoughts on the Government of Poland etc.

Napoleon said that without him the French Revolution (1789) would not have happened. He 

was the first to effectively preach the gospel of the common man and taught them as a birthright. He caused a more complete revolution in educational thought and practice.

Rousseau’s philosophy Naturalism:

Naturalism was a taboo of the Renaissance. The naturalist movement was a revolution in educational theory and practice. This was a milestone in the history of the development of educational ideas. This marked the end of one phase and the beginning of another. It overthrew the Renaissance concept of education which was formal and bookish.

It was a rebellion against theformality of the 18th century, and especially against the artificiality of French life. It was also a rebellion against the autocratic tendencies of the 18thcentury. There was an absolutism in every aspect of life – in politics, in religion, in thought and in action.

Rousseau's philosophy was influenced by three things - the state of time, his extremely diverse experiences of life, and his emotional nature. His philosophy was a reaction against the contemporary social and political system that was saturated with formalism, autocracy and hypocrisy. Rousseau denounced contemporary systems and in the most blatant terms, denounced civilization. The main points of his philosophy are his concepts of "state of nature", "natural man" and "natural civilization". A "civilized man", says Rousseau, "is born in a state of slavery, lives and dies." Rousseau wanted men to be freed from the bondage of society by educating them not for citizenship but for manhood. He believed that civilization, art and all human institutions had a detrimental effect.

Rousseau's philosophy is commonly called "naturalism". He argued that all diseases and miseries of civilization are due to departure from a state of nature. "Everything is good because it comes from the hands of the author of nature; but everything degenerates into the hands of man" - declared Rousseau in the opening sentence of Emile.

Rousseau was a hater of imposed authority. His appeal against artificial society is always from nature. His naturalism holds that the best learning comes from dealing with natural objects. The catch-words of naturalism are freedom, growth, interest and activity. All these words are famous in the field of modern progressive education.

Threefold meaning of nature in Emil:

• Nature in the psychological sense

It means the original endowment inherited by man. It includes instincts, feelings, desires, impulses and natural tendencies. The sound of the heart should be the guiding factor in a child's education. Voltaire emphasized intellect while Rousseau emphasized on desire and emotion.

Wisdom is not everything in the fate of man. Instincts and feelings are superior to intelligence. This was the opinion of Rousseau. Rousseau is always against the formation of "habits". Habit is nothing but a certain course of action. “The only habit that a child should be allowed to form is to have no habit at all,” says Rousseau.

• Nature in the phenomenal sense:

In this sense nature stands for the physical world. Here nature is used to denote inanimate and inhuman nature. It includes trees, rivers, seas, fountains, mountains, sky etc. Rousseau was a great lover of the phenomenal "nature". Nature which is not man-made and which is not contaminated by man was Rousseau's concern.Man has the ability to hear the voice of nature. Rousseau was an idealist in his conception of nature and its relation to man. He believed in universal nature. Man should listen to the heart of nature. Rousseau said, "Cities are the graves of the human species.”

• Nature in the Social sense:

Rousseau, in his 50th year (1762), wrote a treatise known as the “Social Contract”. Here 

Rousseau has presented a vivid picture of human life in the natural environment. In the early stages of human society, men and women were guided by their natural instincts and emotions. They were natural men and women.

The “natural man” is not the wild man, but the man governed and guided by the laws of his own nature. Human society is a body of natural men and women who govern their lives according to the laws of “nature”. There is no doubt that personal goodness is the highest good in life.

Rousseau also went to a very extreme point. He rebelled against the basic structure of the society. “Everything is good in the hands of nature; But in the hands of man everything falls into disrepair.” They rebelled against human society and its traditional institutions. This rebellion had far-reaching consequences in the field of state, society and education.

Rousseau's philosophy and theory of education:

Rousseau's philosophy of education is naturalistic. He is against the system of traditional and formal education. For Rousseau, education does not mean merely imparting information or knowledge. It is not without imposition, it is the development of the child's natural powers and abilities from within. Rousseau points out his educational principles in his famous educational treatise "Emile". This academic romance was written with a definite purpose. The sophisticated society of those days had to show that education, if given properly, would reduce the shortcomings of civilization and bring man closer to "nature". In this book 

Rousseau details the private education of a fictional boy whom he calls "Emile". Education is a fulfilling life. It is a continuous life through the present to the future. Rousseau was against the artificiality of society. He had a deep love for nature. Before them the child’s brain was trained ahead of time. Rousseau opposed this artificial process of training. He regarded it as a kind of positive education.

Was Rousseau an idealist? OR Was Rousseau an Naturalist?:

Philosophically Rousseau was an idealist, academically he was a naturalist. Rousseau was undoubtedly a naturalist in terms of goals, means and methods of education. He turned back to nature as the entire man-made society was corrupt in his days. Rousseau wanted to revive the then corrupt and vicious society. His intention was to establish an ideal society by natural means. So, essentially, Rousseau was an idealist but academically he was a naturalist.

Rousseau’s influence and contribution:

Rousseau's contribution to the subsequent development in the field of education is far-reaching. Later educational theory and practice were highly influenced by his lofty ideas. His ideas have been accepted by modern teachers despite the fact that Rousseau had inconsistencies and contradictions. Rousseau's greatest contribution was his emphasis that education should prepare the individual to live in society. Thus he laid the foundation of sociological trend in modern education. In his individualism he emphasized the idea of a new type of social education. Rousseau did not want reform but revolution in the field of education. He has influenced many great teachers. The educational developments of the 19th and 20th centuries are found in his teachings. His main idea - education according to nature -has been universally accepted. He condemned the old and showed the new.

Conclusion

It requires little labor to demonstrate Rousseau’s originality and importance in the tradition of political philosophy. These have been accepted among political thinkers virtually from the day he began writing on the subject. His most celebrated contemporaries, such as Voltaire and Adam Smith, engaged his work in various ways and to varying degrees, even where they and many others disagreed on the merits of his contributions. This has remained true in recent decades across all methodological approaches and substantive doctrines. John Rawls characterized his Theory of Justice as continuing the social contract tradition established in Locke, Rousseau, and Kant; Jacques Derrida dedicated an entire book to understanding the relationship of politics and language in Rousseau’s works; Isaiah Berlin described Rousseau as the progenitor and archetype of a major and influential mode of political liberty; some have suggested that Rousseau offers the essential underpinnings of Ernesto Laclau, Chantel Mouffe, and other recent radical democrats; Jürgen Habermas credits Rousseau with inventing the very idea of “public opinion,” and with properly celebrating liberty and equality; Leo Strauss situates him as the pivotal “second wave” of modernity, sweeping away ancient commitments to natural law; Sheldon Wolin identifies Rousseau as the key force keeping communitarianism alive in the modern age; Charles Taylor has presented Rousseau as a crucial figure in the development of the modern individual and central to the story of thesecularization of the West; Robert Dahl cites Rousseau as an important (though imperfect) early advocate of democratic inclusion. It is difficult to discuss any major theme in political philosophy today without acknowledging Rousseau’s role in its development Rousseau was the least academic of modern philosophers and in many ways was the most influential. His thought marked the end of the European Enlightenment (the “Age of Reason”). He propelled political and ethical thinking into new channels. His reforms revolutionized taste, first in music, then in the other arts. He had a profound impact on people’s way of life; he taught parents to take a new interest in their children and to educate them differently; he furthered the expression of emotion rather than polite restraint in friendship and love. He introduced the cult of religious sentiment among people who had discarded religious dogma. He opened people’s eyes to the beauties of nature, and he made liberty an object of almost universal aspiration.Formative years Rousseau’s mother died in childbirth, and he was brought up by his father, who taught him to believe that the city of his birth was a republic as splendid as 

Sparta or ancient Rome. Rousseau senior had an equally glorious image of his own importance; after marrying above his modest station as a watchmaker, he got into trouble with the civil authorities by brandishing the sword that his upper-class pretentions prompted him to wear, and he had to leave Geneva to avoid imprisonment. Rousseau, the son, then lived for six years as a poor relation in his mother’s family, patronized and humiliated, until 

he, too, at the age of 16, fled from Geneva to live the life of an adventurer and a Roman 

Catholic convert in the kingdoms of Sardinia and France .Rousseau was fortunate in finding in 

the province of Savoy a benefactor, the baroness de Warens, who provided him with a refuge 

in her home and employed him as her steward. She also furthered his education to such a 

degree that the boy who had arrived on her doorstep as a stammering apprentice who